We present on this occasion an article by Dr. Marzia Boi, expert in palynology. In it she lays the foundations of how the study of pollens in the shroud and in the shroud should be applied. This paper was presented in 2015 at the Annual Conference of the Centro Internazionale di Sindonologia (C.I.S.) based in Turin.
Palynology is the science that studies pollen, the element containing the male gamete and produced exclusively in the flowers of Angiosperms and Gymnosperms, while spores are produced by ferns and fungi for the same reproductive purpose.
The flowering season also marks the beginning of pollination, thanks to which the pollen reaches the ovule, which contains the female gamete, arranged inside the ovary; once fertilized, a fertile semen matures. A pollen grain is formed by a germinative cell, which remains alive only during the time of pollination, in which it is dispersed in the environment, a process that even if it goes unnoticed to our eyes, is perfectly fulfilled by plants. In order not to succumb to natural phenomena due to solar radiation, humidity, or fungal attack, pollen has a resistant and indestructible coating that is indestructible over time. This strong involucre, called exine, is constituted of sporopolenin, a substance of oxidative polymers of carotenoids that, in its external part, is adorned by exclusive ornamental and sculptural elements, which facilitate the dispersion according to the way of pollination. The properties of the exine coating allow the pollen to have a high resistance, even if bacteria and fungi can attack and degrade it, as well as oxidizing processes or fire. The different structures, shapes and ornaments of the exine are very important in Palynology since they are common distinctions within the same botanical species; observing their typology is determinant for the recognition of the taxonomic unit that has generated it. Pollen grains are produced in different abundance depending on both the botanical species and the type of pollination. Plants with anemophilous pollination produce large quantities of pollen to cope with the inevitable wastage due to chance transport; entomophilous plants, which use insects, produce a smaller quantity of pollen because transport is more selective.
Pollen dispersal, transport and deposition are independent of the biological variables of the botanical species (intrinsic) and of environmental variables (extrinsic), related for example to the presence of suitable substrates for pollen capture. The mass of anemophilous pollens, fluctuating in the air, is distributed around the source, in a more or less homogeneous way, to be then transported to another area, by the effect of the same air currents. It then travels to high altitudes, due to atmospheric variations, and then takes the form of pollen rain, where it remains in the sedimentary soils for very long periods of time. It is for this reason that pollen grains are found in all environments, either due to air currents or due to the transport of different animals, and thanks to these means they are able to move away from their place of origin.
Pollen is ubiquitous and generally does not deteriorate, but is preserved in varying quantities in soils, archaeological strata, honeys, hair, clothing, etc. Because of these special characteristics, the search for pollens is of great help to forensic science, archaeology and other disciplines. The pollens identified on an object or a place carry valid evidence in real cases of investigation to understand if these micro traces are present by anthropic or natural causes, through a correct and clear interpretation of the facts. The identification of pollen allows to locate a geographical environment in which the plant species has developed, delimiting also a possible concrete area and also the uses made with plants of anthropic interest. Palynology is the exact science that collaborates in relation to other botanical or scientific traces taken in the area, to follow a common track, and allowing the validity of the general results of an inquiry.
The interest of palynological analysis in forensic and archaeological studies is interesting for these reasons:
a. The pollen has a perfect and fixed morphological structure in a species; the exclusive characters, when analyzed at high magnifications, allow to distinguish the botanical hierarchy of the family level, the genus and even the specific plant species to which it belongs.
b. Pollens are the most common elements of plants; especially entomophilous pollens are found on a surface only if there is an obvious reason, such as direct contact with flowers, insects, animals or by human causes. In the case of wind-borne anemophilous pollens, they spread in the environment in a less selective and more disordered way than entomophilous types.
c. The pollen exine is not normally destroyed in a terrestrial environment; in an archaeological or fossil context it is preserved unaltered for millions of years.
d. Pollen found in a scenario allows linking it also with other scientific evidence present; the finding, especially of entomophilous types, in fossil or archaeological records, allows associating it with specific botanical species. It allows to discover possible 'natural contaminations', which may derive from an approach of plant parts, or from other anthropic uses with plants.
Considerations on the palynological studies of the Shroud of Turin
If we shift the above premises to the studies of the relics of the Shroud of Turin and the Sudarium of Oviedo, it is possible that they contain palynomorphs, and that they contain them from the first moment of the manufacture or use of the fabrics. Clearly the pollens, as visible indications, indirectly come to indicate, according to the botanical species, an ancient presence; it is also possible to differentiate a later contact, derived instead from a natural contamination and a secondary adhesion in time. A particular to be considered in the studies of the pollen of the Shroud is, as already mentioned by Scannerini and Caramiello (1989), that the oldest types are submerged or enclosed in fatty substances, so it could be difficult to identify them at the level of plant species. But other scientific researches have successfully underlined the presence of these micro-prints, demonstrating the significance of their presence, found in forensic contexts or in archaeological records. An example are the studies on mummies of the 2nd century AD (Ciuffarella, 1998), Roman cremation urns of the 1st-3rd century AD (Buosi et al., 2013) or mummies of the Renaissance in Italy ( Giuffra et al., 2011), whose entomophilic pollens found have indicated possible ancient uses of plants. Unfortunately, the conclusions of the palynological studies on the Shroud by the criminologist Frei, are very imprecise and inconclusive to the view of any scientist (Frei 1976, 1979a, 1979b, 1982, 1983, 1985, Ghio 1986). About 50 thousand species have been attributed with pollens and have appeared in a list divided into sectors that have tried to demonstrate the long journey of the relic from East to West Europe, implying the permanence of the same in several countries, according to historical knowledge. The pollens have been certainly individuated, but they have been necessarily made to correspond with a probable geographical origin in order to demonstrate the long journey of the relic. In this work it has been considered almost as a flag, which has traveled in the open air so that to its passage all the pollens adhered and thus were found; it is not taken into consideration that it has been an object of value protected and transferred hidden. These conclusions cast doubt on the interpretation of the pollens because it is very difficult, if not almost impossible, that such a variety of pollen exists and it seems very rare that it has remained on the fibers for centuries. Moreover, I doubt that Frei, not a specialist in Palynology, in a few years would have studied the morphology of pollens from all over Europe and Asia in order to advance his research in the right direction. He would have needed many years to deepen the morphological characters of pollens under the electron microscope; a work on thousands of existing species from Israel to France and Italy. He would have needed to collect review samples of all the flowering species, that is, to wait for the flowering time of each one to compare them with the corresponding Shroud samples, considering that, in the seventies, Palynology was in its beginnings.
The simplest thing for Frei has been to publish the smallest number of Shroud pollen images, match them and relate them to plants growing in historically known Shroud passage places; only in this way he would have received a full repercussion on his research. I believe that it has been a research with conclusions rich of preconceived ideas and impressions that, instead of discovering and confirming the originality of the relic, today has led to speculation about the very presence of pollens on the Shroud. But these allusions and doubts have not been exposed by botanical and palynological researchers, or even by those who have subsequently analyzed some original samples, such as Danin and Baruch, Litt or Maloney. Nevertheless, Frei's research may seem disappointing, the pollens must exist, but they must be interpreted correctly. Estimates of Frei's studies have been based on many aspects, such as the methodology, the adhesive tape, the strange concentration of pollens in the initial area of the segment, the unreliability of the photos, etc. It is surprising that the criticisms of the Shroud pollen have been written by historians and critics, and for this reason I consider them lacking and not worthy of any appreciation. It may seem unlikely that microscopic pollens could adhere and be preserved for a long time on linen fibers, but if oily substances are used, according to the habits of the first centuries A.D., it is very likely that ancient pollens could still remain adhered to the fibers.
The dusting of the Shroud was carried out in the seventies, with a simple method of contact of an adhesive tape on the linen cloth; if the most represented pollens are the entomophiles, they have not reached the relic in a random way or with the wind. It is possible that they are evidence of natural pollutants, due to the uses or the proximity of specific plants. It is necessary a concrete cause, a contact or a botanical use, that nowadays remains to be determined. The rest of the pollens could have arrived with the wind, indicating a secondary contamination and a micro-trace able to stand out at any time. An anemophilous pollen, which would be interesting evidence, but has not been found, is olive pollen, which is a widespread species in Israel and blooms from March onwards (Waisel et al., 1997). The possibility that it has not been found could be evidence that over time it has become prominent or lost, being an anemophilous pollen, or also that it has not been correctly identified. In the 1990s part of Frei's original samples were analyzed by Danin and Barauch (Danin et al., 1999) who confirmed the same species discovered by Frei.
Finally in the 2000s some authors such as McCrone (1990), Litt (Danin & Guerra, 2008), Bryant (2000), and Boi (2012), have questioned the correct identifications of the pollens. These conclusions have also been challenged by Danin himself (Danin & Guerra, 2008), who prefers to pursue his research on the fanciful images of the same plants from the Shroud that he sees drawn and reflected on the canvas. My deduction is that the pollen examinations have been done in an incoherent way, interpreting the pollens in a fanciful way, and that is why, in a second moment, Danin abandons the pollens to concentrate on the search of the negative photos of the Shroud parts of the plants associated with the same identified pollens. These results are lacking scientific validity and associated with the phenomenon of pareidolia (Di Lazzaro et al., 2013).
All the results interpreted without palynological knowledge have led to an untrue clue; the conclusions themselves are difficult to sustain, both from the point of view of scientific discussion and historical context. Until a few years ago, no researcher had checked the exact identification of the pollen found. Litt, after the observation of some samples (Danin & Guerra, 2008) and Bryant (2000), analyzing the same published images, were able to verify that the most abundant pollen type does not belong to the species identified by Frei and Danin & Baruch as Gundelia tournefortii, but to some species of the same Asteraceae family. These doubts are the first indications that the identifications of this pollen are not recognized in the scientific field. I can confirm that several photos published by Frei with electron microscopy, do not correspond to the said species and are not original pollens, perhaps of revision; few images of original Shroud pollens have been published. Optical microscopic analysis does not allow to recognize the pollens at a specific level in most cases; for this reason Frei also carried out investigations with electron microscopy. In the case of the large family Asteraceae, to which Gundelia tournefortii belongs, analysis at high magnification is necessary to determine the differences between other similar taxa. This taxon has been photographed by Frei with scanning electron microscopy and has been misidentified as Ridolfia segetum, belonging to the Apiaceae family; it is very likely that this pollen belongs to samples from the Shroud because it is a crumbling and solitary type. Another lack of identification refers to the pollen of Pistacia spp. identified as Anemone coronaria. These faults, together with the great relevance of the relic, are inconceivable and offer a sad indication that Frei was not sufficiently prepared in the subject of Palynology.
In order to confirm with certainty the species of pollens of the Holy Shroud it is necessary to know the characteristics of the pollens of the botanical families, which must be compared with the flora of Europe, Asia Minor and North Africa; only in this way the present pollens will be able to be guessed. Nowadays there are atlases of pollens that facilitate these investigations, but, in the 70's, due to the fact that Palynology was at the beginning, there was no material available to make comparisons. It would have been sufficient to collect flowering plants from each geographical area, identify them, prepare samples with known pollen (palynotes), due to the lack of geographical atlases or identification keys. The search would have taken dozens of years if we also combine the analysis with optical and electron microscopy.
The list of pollens of the Shroud drawn up by Frei has been illustrated, in most cases, with optical microscopic observations, reaching 1000 magnifications. Considering that the powders of the Shroud have been removed and included in a common adhesive tape, this medium is not suitable and does not allow the precise vision of particulars and morphological characters important for a complete palynological study. Simply the collection method used by Frei has to be enough to demonstrate that it is necessary to open a new collection and a new search with more modern and less aggressive techniques. This analysis must also be deepened with electron microscopic studies to confirm the exact species of existing plant species.
After 40 years since Frei's research, the existence of the pollen of the Shroud remains a mystery, largely due to the inaccuracies of the writings, which do not follow the principles and dynamics of the science of Palynology and which, on the contrary, do comply with the pollen present on the relic. Frei's original samples enclosed in the tapes attached to the covers, together with the original manuscripts, have been 'illegally' sold to the ASSIST in the USA, making them practically inaccessible, so that we are at the starting point of the studies of the Shroud. To be able to continue the studies it is necessary to have new original material, both to corroborate the conclusions and to carry out other examinations on the types of existing pollens.
A few years ago I looked at the original electron microscopic images of the pollens taken by the technician Morano on Frei's commission, photos that are now preserved in Italy. The collection consists mostly of images of review pollens, while images of heirloom pollens are very few. The useful test to identify the old pollens on the old photos would be that they would hardly be found in groups, otherwise they would have to be deteriorated or included in powders or fats. In some scanning electron microscopy images published by Frei, these types of pollens exist, but strangely he preferred to insert in his works current pollens, almost perfect against to show the original pollens; this can make think that these particles do not exist on the linen. From the scientific point of view the pollens are certainly present, but the published results are the fruit of speculations and incompetence in botany as well as in Palynology.
Finally we find ourselves in a web of disinformation, with scientific inaccuracies and absurdities; the evidence of the pollens has not been interpreted correctly and its testimonial veracity has collapsed (supported also by the palynological relationships discussed by those who study the Shroud). The pollens exist, but researchers have not yet understood why, how and how much they could have adhered to the linen.
Much of the research on the pollens has generated criticism because serious gaps are evident, of which I expose the most relevant:
- The method of collecting the samples with an adhesive tape is aggressive to the flax fibers and is also difficult to identify specific pollens.
- The research method and results have not been presented and reasoned in a scientifically correct way; the results seem poorly reasoned and hasty, supported by other background literature studies.
- The lack of a valid scientific method, the scarce reference material and the enthusiasm have not been sufficient to correctly identify the pollens.
- Optical microscopic analyses do not allow. In the great majority of cases, the exact plant species could not be defined, although it was possible to determine the genus or botanical family; it is therefore logical to make mistakes in the determinations.
- The results mention the finding of pollen from extinct plants; two thousand years in the evolution of plants is not a long time, even if it may have altered the area of distribution of some plants.
- The published papers have essentially shown images of modern, possibly recent and revisionary pollens, offering the possibility that no pollens have been found on the fibers.
- There are serious misidentifications of the pollens, confusions at the family level and even more confusion between fungal spores and pollens, evidence that leads to confirm that the necessary competence to carry out these delicate investigations was lacking.
- It has not been elucidated why entomophilous pollens are the most abundant types, and how they ended up on the relict.
- The palynological research on the Shroud is not scientifically clear, explicit and defined; I doubt that the species have been correctly identified.
- The research preceding the conclusions of the study of the pollens would be the collection of plant samples, their identification and waiting for flowering to collect the pollen, a practice that today is simplified thanks to the presence of reference material.
- The results that allude to the presence of pollen according to the journey of the Holy Shroud are too precise to be confirmed essentially only with the use of optical microscopy; the majority of the palynomorphs, remained invested in adhesive, hardly offer results of absolute relief.
- The speculation made with the samples that have been sold to the ASSIST, has been a wrong action; the original samples are evidence that belong to the Shroud, to the scientific community and are not the property of the researchers.
- The conclusions based on hypotheses have led to errors of estimation, that is why I believe that the investigations cannot be considered as finished.
Considerations on the palynological studies of the Oviedo Shroud of Oviedo
In 1978 Frei extracts, with the same simple method of adhesive tape segments, microscopic particles from the surface of the Oviedo Sudarium, with which partial and ambiguous conclusions are reached (Ricci, 1985).
The Spanish Center of Sindonology (CES), in the 90's made new non-invasive samples of powders, obtaining new samples that are currently being studied. A first result, the result of the analysis with optical microscopy, has been presented by the palynologist Gómez Ferreras (1994), in which 141 pollens belonging to Mediterranean taxa were identified. Currently studies are pursuing, analyzing the inspired dust with electron microscopy. The pollens are not abundant, but the presence of essentially entomophilic types is striking, which appear enveloped in resins and dissolved incense, and for this reason specific recognition is sometimes very difficult; other anemophilic pollens, on the other hand, do not have these coatings. This evidence leads to reflect on the fact that also the Oviedo Sudarium has probably undergone a treatment based on oils and essences for its purification and to contain the body fluids of the deceased. Surprisingly, in the analysis of the blood stains, Dr. Sánchez Hermosilla has discovered an entomophilous pollen of Asteraceae, possibly Helichrysum, submerged in blood. This finding, from a few months ago, determines that the pollen adhered when the fluid was still fresh and not yet solidified, demonstrating an original presence, existing from the first moment in which the blood came into contact with the flax fibers. This pollen would be present in oils and ointments because this is the only way it is produced from the crushing of fresh flowers (Helichrisyium oil). The finding clarifies and justifies the presence of particular pollens that are being found in the Shroud, and that confirm the presence of botanical substances used in ancient funeral rituals, together with the Ferula and the Pistacia. The cultural rites with botanical substances, for historical reasons, have been used exclusively during some centuries B.C. and until the III century AD.
It seems incredible that a pollen can offer so much information, but it is the only element that with certainty has reached our days without being completely destroyed and that can be correctly identified.
The current researches made with the Shroud powders can be extended to the Shroud of Turin, unifying the methods of study in order to discover the possible relationships, to contrast them with other evidences, and to find contact with historical facts and ancient habits.
Premises for the studies to be carried out on the Shroud of Turin
a) To build a commission of palynologists to prepare a protocol for the collection of the samples and other micro-traces present.
b) To carry out a microscopic control that serves to determine the state of conservation and degradation of the linen fibers.
c) Due to the previous samples and the change of position of the relic, it is probable that a large part of the oldest micro-prints have been lost; in any case, it is necessary to proceed with a careful examination to find all the particles still adhered to the relic. Since the relic has come into contact with the air, and has been examined by scientists without using measures to avoid contamination, it can be assumed that recent pollens and spores are also found.
d) Proceed to the collection of new samples, by means of non-evasive methods that compromise the condition of the fibers, such as controlled aspiration.
e) The appearance of a single pollen crusted to the biological fluid stains could demonstrate its older presence, as well as the micro traces that appear more deteriorated and covered by concretions.
f) Consider the risk of the presence of spores which, if they develop fungal hyphae, could compromise the current state of the flax fibers, as well as other microtraces.
g) Perform a dusting of the 16th century baked patches on the burnt parts of the original linen; the finding of possible pollens could help to date the historical time period of the most recent Shroud; the types of pollens, both entomophilic and anemophilic, can be compared with those present on the original linen.
h) The powders can be analyzed with electron microscopy without further preparatory chemical treatments.
i) Create a database and images at high magnification of all the particles found, identifying also the area where they have been collected.
j) The background images prevent the creation of a complete pollen spectrum; all the palynomorphs found have to be compared with those of current botanical species.
k) Thanks to the results obtained, it will be possible to associate the pollens for cultural uses or for specific geographical areas, making it possible to compare the Shroud of Turin with the Sudarium of Oviedo.
l) In Palynology, patience and perseverance are indispensable; in general it is confirmed that it is a valid science, not only for the extraordinary certainty it achieves, but also for not using invasive methods.
m) Microscopy at high magnification is an ally to discover the micro traces present. The investigation of the pollen does not remove the Shroud from its history, but collaborates to demonstrate, through scientifically precise studies, the history of the relic.
Bibliography
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